Imagine this scenario: There is a flow meter with 4–20 mA output setup. The switch is flipped, thereby turning it on. Then it is noted that the readings are off, and the required output is not shown.

Back in the “good old days,” controls were all analog and mechanical, which simply means that they acted in a directly connected and variable manner based on a change in force. Both pneumatic (air ...

The I/O capabilities built into most microcontrollers make it easy to measure the analog world. Say you want to build a data logger for temperature. All you need to do is get some kind of sensor that ...

The accuracy of a 4-20 mA transmitter depends on the integrity of its current-loop path, which must be free of shunt paths and ground loops, both within the transmitter and external to it. External to ...